Konsep Lingkungan (Introduksi Ko-Ling)

Kuliah : Konsep Lingkungan

Semester: VI

Dosen : Dr. Ir. Tolangowati Olii Kamil BSc. MT

Kuliah Konsep Lingkungan atau Mahasiswa biasa menyingkat kuliah tersebut sebagai Ko-Ling.

INTRODUKSI

• Bumi
• Kebijakan-Kebijakan Lingkungan
• Pencemaran Lingkungan
• Teknik Pengelolaan Lingkungan
• Kasus-kasus Lingkungan Terkini

DEFINISI LINGKUNGAN & EKOSISTEM 

Dalam UU no 4 tahun 1982 

• Lingkungan hidup adalah kesatuan ruang dengan semua benda, daya, keadaan dan mahluk hidup termasuk di dalamnya manusia dan perilakunya, yang mempengaruhi kelangsungan perikehidupan dan kesejateraan manusia serta mahluk hidup lainnya.
• Ekosistem adalah tatanan kesatuan antara segenap unsur lingkungan hidup yang saling mempengaruhi 

EKOLOGI

• Pertama kali berasal dari biolog Jerman Ernest Haeckel , 1869, berasal dari bahasa Yunani Oikos (rumah tangga) dan logos (ilmu). Secara harfiah ekologi adalah ilmu tentang rumah tangga mahluk hidup.
• Miller (1975): ilmu tentang hubungan timbal balik antara organisme dan sesamanya serta dengan lingkungan tempat tinggalnya.
• Odum (1971): kajian struktur dan fungsi alam, tentang struktur dan interaksi antara sesama organisme dengan lingkungannya
• Otto Soemarwoto: ilmu tentang hubungan timbal balik antara mahluk hidup dan lingkungannya.

JENIS LINGKUNGAN 

• Lingkungan fisik (physial environment) segala sesuatu yang ada di sekitar kita yang berwujud benda mati seperti gedung, jembatan, candi dll
• Lingkungan Biologi(biological env)segala sesuatu yang berada disekitar kita yang berwujud benda hiudp seperti manusia, binatang, dan tumbuhan
• Lingkungan sosial (social env) yaitu manusia-manusia lain yang berada di sekitar kita

Menurut penjelasan pasal 1 UU no 4 tahun 1982 tentang pokok-pokok Pengelolaan LH, LH dibedakan menjadi:

• Lingkungan alam hayati
• Lingkungan alam non hayati
• Lingkungan buatan  
• Lingkungan sosial

PERTUMBUHAN PENDUDUK DUNIA 

 

Read More......

Rangkaian Listrik 1 (Introduksi)

Kuliah Rangkaian Listrik 1 ini dipelajari pada semester 1. Dosen mata kuliah tsb. adalah Ibu Dr. Ir. Tolangowati Olii Kamil B.Sc., MT. dan Bapak Endang Sukarna

Tujuan Perkuliahan

Memberikan pengetahuan kepada mahasiswa agar dapat menganalisa dan menyelesaikan persoalan-persoalan rangkaian listrik arus searah berdasarkan hukum dan teorema rangkaian, serta melakukan simulasi rangkaian dengan paket program aplikasi

Pokok Bahasan

Materi pokok yang dipelajari adalah:

-Konsep Energi, Arus, Tegangan, Daya
-Rangkaian Listrik, Resistansi, Induktansi, Kapasitansi
-Analisa Rangkaian Arus Searah
-Pengertian Impedansi, Beda Fasa dan Faktor Daya

Silabus

-Definisi dan satuan
-Hukum Eksperimen dan Rangkaian Sederhana
-Teknik Menganalisis Rangkaian
-Rangkaian Transien Induktansi/ Kapasitansi
-Rangkaian Transien RL/RC tanpa Sumber
-Rangkaian Transien Penerapan fungsi Pemaksa Tangga satuan
-Rangkaian Transien RLC

Referensi

Berikut ini adalah beberapa buku yang dijadikan acuan/referensi dalam mempelajari rangkaian listrik 1:

-William H Hyat, Jr dan jack E. Kemmerly, Rangkaian Listrik Jilid 1 dan 2 Penerbit Erlangga
-Noel M Morris dan Frak W Senior, Eelectri Circuit, Macmillan Workout Series
-Ralph J Smith, Circuit, Device and Systems, Willey International Edition
-Peyton Z Peebles Jr dan Tayeb A. Giuma, Electrical Engineering, McGraw Hill

Read More......

Alat Ukur dan Pengukuran (Introduksi Instrumentasi)

Kuliah Alat ukur (peukur) dan Pengukuran ini dipelajari pada semester 1. Dosen mata kuliah tsb. adalah Ibu Dr. Ir. Tolangowati Olii Kamil B.Sc., MT. dan Bpk. Ir. Noorcholish

Pada awal dari kuliah Alat ukur dan Pengukuran, dijelaskan mengenai:
1. Introduksi
2. Fungsi dan karakteristik Instrumen
3. Unit listrik/Standar pengukuran
4. Kesalahan dalam pengukuran
5. Analisa Statistik kesalahan dalam pengukuran
6. Membatasi Kesalahan
7. Elemen-elemen Instrumen Elektronika
8. Memilih, memelihara dan menggunakan instrumen

Introduksi

- Instrumen tipe defleksi dengan skala dan jarum penunjuk bergerak.
- Instumen analog mengidentifikasikan instrumen tipe defleksi.
- Instrumen digital/bergana (decimal).

Fungsi dan Karakteristik Instrumen

- Mensuplai informasi tentang variabel-variabel besaran yang akan diukur.
- Memberikan penunjukkan visual dari besaran yang akan diukur.
- Mengendalikan besaran dengan memberikan pelayanan 3 fungsi dasar instrumen: penunjukkan, perekaman dan pengendalian.
- Di industri di sebut sistem kendali atau sistem otomatisasi

Unit Listrik

Unit:
1. Muatan Listrik = Q
2. Arus Listrik = I
3. Gaya Gerak Listrik (Beda Potensial) = V
4. Tahanan (resistansi) = R
5. Induktansi = L
6. Kapasitansi = C

Standar Pengukuran

Besaran Dasar atau Besaran Pokok : Panjang, Massa, Waktu, Temperatur atau Suhu, Intensitas Cahaya, Arus Listrik, Jumlah Molekul
Simbol dalam rumus : l, m, t, T, I_v , i, n
Satuan atau Unit (simbol satuan) SI : meter (m), kilogram (kg), detik atau Sekon (det), Kelvin (K), Candela (Cd), Ampere (A), Mol (mol)
Simbol Dimensi : [L], [M], [T], [θ], [J], [I], [N]

Read More......

Daftar Mata Kuliah Semester 1

Daftar Mata kuliah semester 1, Program Studi Teknik Elektronika - Politeknik Negeri Bandung, Tahun ajaran 2008/2009

1. Alat Ukur dan Pengukuran - 2 SKS
2. B.Inggris Teknik 1 - 2 SKS
3. Teknologi Mekanik - 2 SKS
4. Fisika Terapan - 2 SKS
5. Gambar Teknik - 2 SKS
6. K3 dan Hukum Ketenagakerjaan - 2 SKS
7. Komponen Elektronika - 2 SKS
8. Matematika Terapan 1 - 2 SKS
9. Rangkaian Listrik 1 - 2 SKS
10. Rangkaian Logika - 2 SKS

Read More......

Tahapan Perancangan Elektronika

Dalam perancangan di bidang teknik elektronika, khususnya pembuatan rangkaian elektronika ada beberapa tahapan yaitu:

1. Simulasi rangkaian dengan software simulasi rangkaian elektronika,
   
2. Pengecekan rangkaian yang sebenarnya dengan protoboard atau breadboard,
3. Pembuatan rangkaian yang sudah benar pada PCB.

Langkah-langkah diatas adalah langkah-langkah umum yang digunakan oleh kebanyakan pelajar atau orang-orang yang bergelut di bidang teknik elektronika dalam merancang suatu rangkaian elektronika. Dengan langkah-langkah seperti yang telah disebutkan diatas, diharapkan perancangan rangkaian elektronika akan lebih optimal dari segi perancangan dan realisasi (biaya, waktu, dan lain-lain).

Tahapan yang pertama adalah mensimulasikan rangkaian yang akan direalisasikan dengan menggunakan software simulator. Tujuannya adalah untuk mengetahui logik/keadaan rangkaian tanpa harus menyediakan komponen-komponen nyata/aslinya. Jadi, pada simulasi, komponen-komponennya seringnya dalam keadaan ideal. Ada banyak sekali jenis software simulator ini, diantaranya yang pernah penulis gunakan adalah:

• Electronics Workbench versi 5.12
  
• Circuit Maker versi 6.0 dan 2000
• Proteus versi 7.1

Masing-masing software ini punya kelebihan dan kekurangannya yang insyaallah akan penulis bahas di tulisan selanjutnya.

Tahapan yang kedua adalah mencoba rangkaian hasil simulasi pada protoboard atau breadboard. Tujuannya adalah untuk membandingkan rangkaian bekerja sesuai dengan simulasi atau tidak (tidak harus persis). Protoboard/Breadboard adalah suatu perangkat berbahan plastik (isolator) dengan lubang-lubang untuk menempatkan kaki-kaki komponen, terdapat tembaga dibagian dalamnya dan menghubungkan komponen cukup dengan kawat/kabel tanpa harus disolder (solderless). Jadi apabila ada kesalahan pada rangkaian, maka dapat diperbaiki cukup dengan memindahkan kabel ataupun komponennya. Untuk lebih jelas, dapat dilihat pada gambar dibawah ini.

Sumber gambar : http://simonpstevens.com

Bahasan mengenai protoboard ini insyaallah akan dibahas lebih lanjut pada tulisan berikutnya.

Tahapan yang terakhir adalah merealisasikan rangkaian pada PCB (Printed Circuit Board) atau PRT (Papan Rangkaian Tercetak). Tentu saja, syaratnya adalah rangkaian sudah benar. PCB atau P Ada beberapa teknik dalam merancang PCB, yaitu: dengan manual (menggunakan spidol, setrika, FeCl3) dan semi otomatis (menggunakan software desain PCB, sinar ultraviolet). Software desain PCB dan teknik pembuatan PCB Insyaallah juga akan dibahas pada tulisan selanjutnya.

Sumber : www.google.co.id, http://labdasar.ee.itb.ac.id/lab/EL2195/0910/modul%20praktikum/APENDIKS%20SISDIG.pdf, buku kuliah, dll.

Read More......

The Current I = V x R

If we keep the same resistance in a circuit but vary the voltage, the current will vary. The circuit in Fig. 2-1 demonstrates this idea. The applied voltage V can be varied from 0 -12 V, as an example. The bulb has a 12-V filament, which requires this much voltage for its normal current to light with normal intensity. The meter I indicates the amount of current in the circuit for the bulb.

With 12 V applied, the bulb lights, indicating normal current. When V is reduced to 10 V, there is less light because of less I. As V decreases, the bulb becomes dimmer. For zero volts applied there is no current and the bulb cannot light. In summary, the changing brilliance of the bulb shows the current is varying with the changes in applied voltage.

For the general case of any V and R, Ohm's Law is






where I is the amount of current through the resistance R connected across the source of potential difference V. With volts as the practical unit for V and ohms for R, the amount of current I is in amperes. Therefore,






This formula says to simply divide the voltage across R by the ohms of resistance between the two points of potential difference to calculate the amperes of current through R.

Read More......

Ohm's Law

This note is explain how the amount of current I in a circuit depends on its resistance R and the applied voltage. Specifically, I = V/R, determined in 1828 by the experiments of George Simon Ohm. If we know any two of the factors V, I, and R, we can calculate the third. As an example, with 6V applied accros an R of 2 ohm, the I is 6/2 = 3 A. Ohm's law also determines the amount of electric power in the circuit. The amount of power consumed P in a circuit is equal to the voltage times the current (P = V x I). The power used by the R above is therefore equal 6 x 3 = 18 W. This relations apply to both DC and AC circuit.

Important terms in this note are:
volt
ampere
ohm
watt
joule
milli
micro
kilo
mega
linear graph
power
voltampere characteristic

Read More......

Charges of Opposite Polarity Attract

If two small charged bodies of light weight are mounted so that they are free to move easily and are placed close to each other, one can be attracted to the other when the two charges have opposite polarity. In terms of electrons and protons, they tend to be attracted to each other by the force of attraction between opposite charges. Furthermore, the weight of an electron is only about 1/1840 weight of a proton. As a result, the force of attraction tends to make electrons move to protons.

Read More......

Negative and Positive Polarities

Historically, the negative polarity has been assigned to the static charge produced on rubber, amber, and resinous materials in general. Positive polarity refers to the static charge produced on glass and other vitreous materials. On this basis, the electrons in all atoms are basic particles of negative charge because their polarity is the same as the charge on rubber. Protons have positive charge because the polarity is the same as the charge on glass.

Read More......

The Coulumb Unit of Charge

If you rub a head rubber pen or comb on a sheet of paper, the rubber will attract a corner of the paper if it is free to move easily. The paper and rubber then give evidence of a static electric charge. The work of rubbing resulted in separating electrons and protons to produce a charge of excess electrons on the surface of the rubber and a charge of excess protons on the paper.

Because paper and rubber are dielectric materials, they hold their extra electrons or protons. As a result, the paper and rubber are no longer neutral, but each has an electric charge. The resultant electric charges provide the force of attraction between the rubber and the paper. This mechanical force of attraction or repulsion between charges is the fundamental method by which electricity makes itself evidence.

Any charge is an example of static electricity because the electrons or protons are not in motion. There are many examples. When you walk across a wool rug, your body becomes charged with an excess of electrons. Similarly, silk, fur, and glass can be rubbed to produce a static charge. This effect is more evident in dry weather, because a moist dielectric does not hold its charge so well. Also, plastic materials can be charged easily, which is why thin, light weight plastics seem to stick to everything.

The charge of many billions of electrons or protons is necessary for common applications of electricity. Therefore, it is convenient to define a practical unit called the coulomb (C) as equal to the charge of 6.25 x 10^18 electrons or protons stored in a dielectric. The analysis of static charge and their forces is called electrostatics.

The symbol for electric charge is Q or q, standing for quantity. For instance, a charge of 6.25 x 10^18 electrons is stated as Q = 1 C. This unit is named after Charles A. Coulomb (1736-1806), a French physicist, who measured the force between charges.

Read More......

Particles in the Nucleus

A stable nucleus, which is not radioactive, contains protons and neutrons. A neutron is electrically neutral without any net charge. Its mass is almost the same as a proton.

A proton has the positive charge of a hydrogen nucleus. The charge is the same amount as that of an orbital electron but of opposite polarity. There are no electrons in the nucleus. Table 3 lists the charge and mass for these three basic particles in all atoms.

Read More......

Subshells

Although not shown in the illustrations, all the shells except K are divided into subshells. This subdivision accounts for different types of orbits in the same shell. For instance, electrons in one subshell may have elliptical orbits, while other electrons in the same main shell have circular orbits. The subshells indicate magnetic properties of the atom.

Read More......

Electron Valence

This value is the number of electrons in an incomplete outermost shell. Copper, for instance, has a valence of 1 because there is 1 electron in the last shell, after the inner shells have been completed with their stable number. Similarly, hydrogen has a valence of 1, and carbon has a valence of 4. The number of outer electrons is considered positive valence, as these electrons are in addition to the stable shells.

Except for H and He, the goal of valence is 8 for all the atoms, as each tends to form the stable structure of 8 electrons in the outside ring. For this reason, valence can also be considered as the number of electron s in the outside ring needed to make 8. This value is the negative valence. As examples, the valence of copper can be considered +1 or -7; carbon has the valence of ±4. The inert gases have a valence of 0, as they all have a complete stable outer shell of 8 electrons.

The valence indicates how easily the atom can gain or lose electrons. For instance, atoms with a valence of +1 can lose this 1 outside electron, especially to atoms with a valence of +7 or -1, which need 1 electron to complete the outside shell with 8 electrons.

Read More......

Orbital Rings

This value is the number of electrons in an incomplete outermost shell. Copper, for instance, has a valence of 1 because there is 1 electron in the last shell, after the inner shells have been completed with their stable number. Similarly, hydrogen has a valence of 1, and carbon has a valence of 4. The number of outer electrons is considered positive valence, as these electrons are in addition to the stable shells.

Except for H and He, the goal of valence is 8 for all the atoms, as each tends to form the stable structure of 8 electrons in the outside ring. For this reason, valence can also be considered as the number of electron s in the outside ring needed to make 8. This value is the negative valence. As examples, the valence of copper can be considered +1 or -7; carbon has the valence of ±4. The inert gases have a valence of 0, as they all have a complete stable outer shell of 8 electrons.

The valence indicates how easily the atom can gain or lose electrons. For instance, atoms with a valence of +1 can lose this 1 outside electron, especially to atoms with a valence of +7 or -1, which need 1 electron to complete the outside shell with 8 electrons.

Read More......

Atomic Number

This gives the number of protons or electrons required in the atom for each element. For the hydrogen atom in Fig. 1, the atomic number is 1, which means the nucleus has 1 proton balanced by 1 orbital electrons. Similarly, the carbon atom in Fig. 2 with atomic number 6 has 6 protons in the nucleus and 6 orbital electrons. Also, the copper atom has 29 electrons because its atomic number is 29.

Read More......

Structure of the Atom

Although nobody has ever seen an atom, its hypothetical structure fits experimental evidence that has been measured very exactly. The size and electric charge of the invisible particles in the atom are indicated by how much they are deflected by known forces. Our present planetary model of the atom was proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913. His contribution was joining the new ideas of the nuclear atom developed by Lord Rutherford (1871-1937) with the quantum theory of radiation developed by Max Planck (1858-1947) and Albert Einstein (1879-1955).

The nucleus contains protons for all the positive charge in the atom. The number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of planetary electrons. Thus, the positive and negative charges are balanced, as the proton and electron have equal and opposite charges. The orbits for the planetary electrons are also called shells or energy levels.

Read More......

Molecules and Compounds

A group of two or more atoms forms a molecule. For instance, two atoms of hydrogen (H) form a hydrogen molecule (H2). When hydrogen unites chemically with oxygen, the result is water (H2O), which is compound. A compound, then consists of two or more elements. The molecule is the smallest unit of a compound with the same chemical characteristic. We can have molecules for either elements or compounds. However, atoms exist only for the elements.

Read More......

Elements

The combination of electrons and protons forming stable atomic structures result in different kinds of elementary substance having specific characteristics. A few examples are the elements hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, copper, and iron. An element is defined as substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical action. The atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the same characteristics as the element. Atom itself is a Greek word meaning a particle too small to be subdivided. As an example of the fact that atoms are to small to be visible, a particle of carbon the size of a pinpoint contains many billions of atoms. The electrons and protons within the atom are even smaller.

Table lists some more examples of elements. These are just a few out of a total of 106. Notice how the elements are grouped. The metals listed across the top row are all good conductors of electricity. Each has an atomic structure with an unstable outside ring that allows many free electrons.

The semiconductors have 4 electrons in the outermost ring. This means they neither gain or lose electrons but share them with similar atoms. The reason is that 4 is exactly halfway to the stable condition of 8 electrons in the outside ring.

The inert gases have a complete outside ring of 8 electrons, which makes them chemically inactive. Remember that 8 electrons in the outside ring is a stable structure. An example is neon.

Read More......

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

When electrons can move easily from atom to atom in a material, it is a conductor. In general, all the metals are good conductors, with silver the best and copper second. Their atomic structure allows free movement of the outermost orbital electrons. Copper wire is generally used for practical conductors because it costs much less than silver. The purpose of using conductors is to allow electric current to flow with minimum opposition.

The wire conductor is used only as a means of delivering current produced by the voltage source to a device that needs the current in order to function. As an example, a bulb lights only when current is made to low through the filament.

A material with atoms in which the electrons tend to stay in their own orbits is an insulator because it cannot conduct electricity very easily. However, the insulators are able to hold or store electricity better than the conductors. An insulating material, such as glass, plastic, rubber, paper, air, or mica, is also called a dielectric, meaning it can store electric charge.

Insulators can be useful when it is necessary to prevent current flow. In addition, for applications requiring the storage of electric charge, as in capacitors, a dielectric material must be used because a good conductor cannot store any charge.

Carbon can considered a semiconductor, conducting less than the metal conductors but more the insulators. In the same group are germanium and silicon, which are commonly used for transistors and other semiconductor components.

Read More......

Electrons and Protons in the Atom

Although there are many number of posibble methods by which electrons and protons might be grouped, they assemble in specific combinations that result in a stable arrengement. Each stable combination of electrons and protons makes one particular type of atom. Figure 1 illustrates the electron and proton structure of one atom of the gas hydrogen. This atom consists of a central mass called the nucleus and 1 electron outside. The proton in nucleus makes it the massive and stable part of the atom because a proton is 1840 times heavier than electron.

In figure 1, the 1 electron in the hydrogen atom is shown in an orbital ring around the nucleus. In order to account for the electrical stability of atom, we can consider the electron as spinning around the nucleus, as planets revolve around the sun. Then the electrical force attracting the electrons in toward the nucleus is balanced by the mechanical force outward on the rotating electron. As a result, the electron stays in its orbit around the nucleus.

In an atom that has more electrons and protons than hydrogen, all the protons are in the nucleus, while all the electrons are in one or more outside rings. For example, the carbon atom illustrated figure 2a has 6 protons in two outside rings. The total number of electrons in the outside rings must equal the number of protons in the nucleus in a neutral atom.

The distribution of electrons in the orbital rings determines the atom’s electrical stability. Especially important is the number of electrons in the ring farthest from the nucleus. This outermost ring requires 8 electrons for stability, except when there is only one ring, which has a maximum of 2 electrons.

In the carbon atom in fig. 2a, with 6 electrons, there are just 2 electrons in the first ring because 2 is its maximum number. The remaining 4 electrons are in the second ring, which can have a maximum of 8 electrons.



As another example, the copper atom in Fig. 2b has only 1 electron in the last ring, which can include 8 electrons. Therefore, the outside ring of the copper atom is less stable than the outside ring of the carbon atom.

When there are many atoms close together in a copper wire, the outermost orbital electrons are not sure which atoms they belong to. They can migrate easily from ane atom to another at random. Such electrons that can move freely from one atom to the next are often called free electrons. This freedom accounts for the ability of copper to conduct electricity very easily. It is the movement of free electrons that provides electric current in a metal conductor.

The net effect in the wire itself without any applied voltage, however, is zero because of the random motion of the free electrons. When voltage is applied, it forces all the free electrons to move in the same direction to produce electron flow, which is an electric current.

Read More......